For a man who lived to be only 38, Vygotsky studied cognitive development extensively and has left a body of work that heavily informs the educational theories of today.
The Social Construction of Learning
Through his observations, Vygotsky concluded that social processes and interactions in the environment are transformed to become internal processes within the child. It asserts that people first interact with others around them by engaging in shared activities. Through these interactions, a child learns how to appropriately use material tools (the physical things in their environment) to assist them and also the appropriate use of psychological tools (such as socially acceptable behaviours, and language use). In essence, the older, more knowledgeable persons with whom the child interacts, guides them in learning this things. In the classroom, teachers are to provide a similar function in helping students to develop - a person with more knowledge/experience assisting a child with less knowledge/experience. Vygotsky considered this 'assisted performance' and viewed teaching as mediation (assisting a learner through step-by-step explanation, demonstration, guided questioning, and feedback). This mediation process that involves the interaction of more experienced persons with less experienced persons means that a learner's capabilities are socially facilitated.
From Speaking to Thinking - Internalization
Vygotsky observed that children regularly spoke to themselves aloud (egocentric speech) and found this to resemble speaking to another person or repeating a lot of what they have heard. As children grew, egocentric speech grew more infrequent. This, he believed, signaled a change from talking aloud to talking silently to themselves, and referred to this process as the internalization of words to become thoughts.
When conceptualize things through their internalized speech or thoughts, they see a big picture. Verbalizing this picture can often prove difficult especially for children when they have limited time in which to do so. Teachers should therefore allow children time to reflect before they are expected to answer questions, further, since children become very vulnerable when they share their thoughts in a full classroom, teachers should help them grow more confident in doing so by allowing them to share ideas in small groups of peers before having to do so to their whole class.
The Complex Links Between Thinking and Speaking
Speech is analytical. By talking about an event, we help to organize out thoughts about it and perhaps even lead to new realizations since it helps us to look at things in new ways. Vygotsky said "Every sentence we say in real life has some kind of subtext, a thought hidden behind it." Students must always be encouraged to talk about their learning, it helps to make the connection between the new information going into their brains and things they already know. Moreover, it helps them to sort through the growing data in their heads, shape it, label it, store and use it.
The Zone of Proximal Development
This is the gap between what a learner can learn on their own and what they can learn with assistance from someone else. Vygotsky believed that all good learning takes place in this zone. Through mediation (guidance), learners are helped to stretch a little beyond what they can manage to achieve on their own. Responsibility still rests on the learner's shoulders to apply themselves to learning, but when things get a little beyond their own reach, educators swoop in to give them a springboard of guidance to get to the next level. The inability of a student to learn at a desired pace does not mean they are incapable of learning, therefore educators need to provide them with the necessary support, feedback, guidance, and encouragement to enable them to stay motivated to progress. They should be strongly encouraged to talk about their learning.
Thursday 27 February 2014
Tuesday 25 February 2014
Activity 5 - Development Psychology
A person's development is critical to their ability to and pace of learning. When we think of where children are in their development, we often view it from the point of view of age, however, development goes beyond this. Development psychology studies how individuals change over time and what factors affect these changes. It examines development in a variety of areas including physical development, social relations, emotional development, personality development, moral development and cognitive skills.
A variety of studies have shown that people generally develop in similar regards at similar periods in life such as learning to walk and talk. However, other factors such as physical development, the home environment, the cultural background and so on would affect these things among people. Therefore, when we are aware of certain timelines for general development, any serious deviation from the timeline in a student raises concerns and calls for investigation into the other factors outside of the student's age. Uncovering the other elements in the student's life which affect them then helps teachers to better plan and execute classes to meet their needs.
It is also important to remember that development is a collective change over time in a holistic manner. Therefore, there may be times of sharp growth in development and times of little growth in the development of a person. This is to be expected as part of the dynamic of developing as a person.
Studies have shown that when children grow up in environments in which they are well-liked by others, had a high activity level, had problem-solving and reading skills, and the ability to concentrate on assignments/tasks among other things, helped them to be resilient against the challenges and stresses of life. In addition, factors such as being from a small family, having teachers who they viewed as positive role models, and finding emotional support outside of immediate family all helped them to grow positively.
Sunday 23 February 2014
Development Psychology - Self Activity 1 - Who am I?
I am a 6'2" introvert with a gentle spirit. I spend a lot of time in though and thrive on intellectual conversations about philosophical ideas, the social and political constructs of the human existence, and the complexities of our universe. I have increasingly liberal views that are juxtaposed with my conservative demeanor. I've always loved music, but had a difficult time learning it, this has given me a desire to help others to learn and perhaps avoid some of the pitfalls I fell into. I also have an interest in teaching as a way to help young people to grow in to responsible adults. Having been a victim of bullying as a teen, I developed an affinity to the underdogs, and to those who are treated as outcasts in a group. This has lead to me be very accepting of the difference we find existing among people everywhere - political beliefs, religions, customs, sexuality, race, they are all just varying aspects of the human condition. The strength and determination of my mother in a single parent household demonstrated to me at a young age, just how much can be achieved if you are willing to work hard and push towards your dreams. This lesson has kept me focused on my pursuits as a musician in the face of all difficulties.
Group Activity 4 - Behavourism
Behaviourism deals with the links between behaviour and its consequences. In Group Activity 4, teachers shared several new strategies they were exploring to change behaviours in their classrooms. These ranged from the way learns were perceived to think (active and passive thinkers), to returning to class on time after breaks, to classroom disruptions. Most, if not all, of the strategies provided were said to have had positive effects on the class. A variety of them look promising as strategies I will try out in my classrooms as well. I will outline some of these below.
1. Positive reinforcement of good students. In many cases, ill-disciplined students get a lot of attention in the classroom. By focusing on commending students who behave well in a class (such as answering questions, being attentive, taking their notes) instead of constantly rebuking those who misbehave, positive behaviour is reinforced. Those students are then encouraged to keep doing well. The students who are ill-disciplined subsequently strive to do better in an effort to get some of the attention that the good students are - the bad try to emulate the good.
2. Giving students responsibility for chores around the school instead of suspending them for infractions. This includes keeping the environment clean and tidy after break and lunch. This way, students remain in school and get to attend classes while being punished for their infractions.
3. Planning lessons that require more group collaboration. In this way, students who like to talk a lot during class have a way of focusing their discussions positively rather than disruptively.
4. My own change of strategy involved having students determine what behaviour is appropriate in the classroom. I held discussions about how they should behave after the bell rings to signal the start of a session. Instead of telling them what is to be expected, I allowed them to discuss and suggest appropriate behaviours ranging from getting to class and picking up classroom litter, to raising their hands to ask questions and focusing on the lesson instead of cross-talking. I pointed out that these things were their ideas and that I expect to see them in action.
1. Positive reinforcement of good students. In many cases, ill-disciplined students get a lot of attention in the classroom. By focusing on commending students who behave well in a class (such as answering questions, being attentive, taking their notes) instead of constantly rebuking those who misbehave, positive behaviour is reinforced. Those students are then encouraged to keep doing well. The students who are ill-disciplined subsequently strive to do better in an effort to get some of the attention that the good students are - the bad try to emulate the good.
2. Giving students responsibility for chores around the school instead of suspending them for infractions. This includes keeping the environment clean and tidy after break and lunch. This way, students remain in school and get to attend classes while being punished for their infractions.
3. Planning lessons that require more group collaboration. In this way, students who like to talk a lot during class have a way of focusing their discussions positively rather than disruptively.
4. My own change of strategy involved having students determine what behaviour is appropriate in the classroom. I held discussions about how they should behave after the bell rings to signal the start of a session. Instead of telling them what is to be expected, I allowed them to discuss and suggest appropriate behaviours ranging from getting to class and picking up classroom litter, to raising their hands to ask questions and focusing on the lesson instead of cross-talking. I pointed out that these things were their ideas and that I expect to see them in action.
Monday 3 February 2014
Group Activity - 3
In this activity, my group members shared what they have learned about learning and teaching through their students' reactions over the years. Several themes were prominent:
1. Students are very observant and they note what teachers say, teach and practice. They detect any duplicity in teachers and this undermines the credibility of the instructor. Therefore, teachers ought to 'practice what they preach' and lead by example.
2. It is important to recognize the backgrounds of learners and respect where they are coming from in order to get a better understanding of the factors at play in their lives. This helps to break down the adversarial attitudes that often exists in the teacher/learner relationship. It helps to build rapport.
3. Students need to feel rewarded for their achievements. They must be celebrated. This extends even beyond the students' academic achievements to their achievements in other spheres. Learners like to feel appreciated.
1. Students are very observant and they note what teachers say, teach and practice. They detect any duplicity in teachers and this undermines the credibility of the instructor. Therefore, teachers ought to 'practice what they preach' and lead by example.
2. It is important to recognize the backgrounds of learners and respect where they are coming from in order to get a better understanding of the factors at play in their lives. This helps to break down the adversarial attitudes that often exists in the teacher/learner relationship. It helps to build rapport.
3. Students need to feel rewarded for their achievements. They must be celebrated. This extends even beyond the students' academic achievements to their achievements in other spheres. Learners like to feel appreciated.
Sunday 2 February 2014
Self-activity - Social Cognitive Theory - Learning Through Observation
Consider what you have read so far in this activity with the following questions in mind:
1. How might these ideas be applied in the classroom?
2. How might I use these ideas of modeling in my teaching?
1. Observation is a innate method of learning. Therefore, in the classroom, if learners can keenly observe the behaviours of a model, then they should be able to imitate these behaviours over time and demonstrate learning.
Attention is the first and perhaps most critical step in the observation process; 'Without attention, there can be no learning.' Gage and Berliner (1991, p258). Students have to be focused and attentive to the classroom model to 'take in' what is being demonstrated. Thereafter, the stimuli go to their short term memory/working memory for encoding in long term memory - retention. This may be aided by the educator through the use of code words, visual stimuli, jingles and so on, that support the connection of ideas in the students' minds.
The educator must facilitate the production phase by creating opportunities for the student(s) to demonstrate the behaviours they observed. This has to be followed up with feedback to the student(s). Appropriate feedback serves as an indicator to the student(s) as to whether or not they have done well. Positive feedback motivates students to carry out and improve upon the behaviour while negative feedback or harsh criticism may demotivate them to continue. It must be noted, though, that negative feedback with positive reinforcement can motivate the student(s) to observe afresh, pay greater attention and better their retention process.
2. I can use the ideas of modeling to assist my students in various ways. By having positive attitudes towards the material being taught I can ignite their own interests in the material. My demonstrations of the step by step process of achieving positive outcomes can help them to retain much of the material. In addition, partnering with students to critically think through concepts and find linkages to concepts they already know in other areas, can enrich the entire experience and help the students to feel 'closer' to what they are learning and by extension create more familiar steps to the retention process. When students get the opportunity to produce, my focus should not be solely on correct answers but also on the process of getting to these answers based on what they observed. Feedback ought to be encouraged from their peers and I too must provide feedback. The aim of providing feedback should be to encourage positive progress. Therefore, I should praise students who have done well and as this encourages them to perpetuate the behaviours they have observed. I must also advise students who have done poorly on ways in which they can have more positive outcomes, and I should highlight the positive aspects that they managed to achieve as well.
1. How might these ideas be applied in the classroom?
2. How might I use these ideas of modeling in my teaching?
1. Observation is a innate method of learning. Therefore, in the classroom, if learners can keenly observe the behaviours of a model, then they should be able to imitate these behaviours over time and demonstrate learning.
Attention is the first and perhaps most critical step in the observation process; 'Without attention, there can be no learning.' Gage and Berliner (1991, p258). Students have to be focused and attentive to the classroom model to 'take in' what is being demonstrated. Thereafter, the stimuli go to their short term memory/working memory for encoding in long term memory - retention. This may be aided by the educator through the use of code words, visual stimuli, jingles and so on, that support the connection of ideas in the students' minds.
The educator must facilitate the production phase by creating opportunities for the student(s) to demonstrate the behaviours they observed. This has to be followed up with feedback to the student(s). Appropriate feedback serves as an indicator to the student(s) as to whether or not they have done well. Positive feedback motivates students to carry out and improve upon the behaviour while negative feedback or harsh criticism may demotivate them to continue. It must be noted, though, that negative feedback with positive reinforcement can motivate the student(s) to observe afresh, pay greater attention and better their retention process.
2. I can use the ideas of modeling to assist my students in various ways. By having positive attitudes towards the material being taught I can ignite their own interests in the material. My demonstrations of the step by step process of achieving positive outcomes can help them to retain much of the material. In addition, partnering with students to critically think through concepts and find linkages to concepts they already know in other areas, can enrich the entire experience and help the students to feel 'closer' to what they are learning and by extension create more familiar steps to the retention process. When students get the opportunity to produce, my focus should not be solely on correct answers but also on the process of getting to these answers based on what they observed. Feedback ought to be encouraged from their peers and I too must provide feedback. The aim of providing feedback should be to encourage positive progress. Therefore, I should praise students who have done well and as this encourages them to perpetuate the behaviours they have observed. I must also advise students who have done poorly on ways in which they can have more positive outcomes, and I should highlight the positive aspects that they managed to achieve as well.
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